{"entities":[{"id":"dartmouth-proposal-1955","shortName":"Dartmouth proposal (1955)","type":"document"},{"id":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","shortName":"Buckingham, Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change (1955)","type":"document"},{"id":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","shortName":"Nourse, Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change (1955)","type":"document"},{"id":"reuther-1955-automation-hearings-statement","shortName":"Reuther, Statement (president, CIO), in Automation and Technological Change (1955)","type":"document"},{"id":"diebold-1955-automation-condensation","shortName":"Diebold, A Condensation of the Book Automation, in Automation and Technological Change (1955)","type":"document"},{"id":"automation-hearings-1955-other-witnesses","shortName":"Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization, Automation and Technological Change (1955)","type":"document"},{"id":"walter-s-buckingham","name":"Walter S. Buckingham Jr.","type":"person"},{"id":"john-diebold","name":"John Diebold","type":"person"},{"id":"john-mccarthy","name":"John McCarthy","type":"person"},{"id":"marvin-minsky","name":"Marvin Minsky","type":"person"},{"id":"edwin-g-nourse","name":"Edwin G. Nourse","type":"person"},{"id":"walter-p-reuther","name":"Walter P. Reuther","type":"person"},{"id":"nathaniel-rochester","name":"Nathaniel Rochester","type":"person"},{"id":"claude-e-shannon","name":"Claude E. Shannon","type":"person"}],"claims":[{"id":"ts-a2-dartmouth-1955-context","subject":"dartmouth-proposal-1955","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"seed-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"The 1955 Dartmouth proposal lists self-improvement as a research topic: a truly intelligent machine will probably carry out activities best described as self-improvement.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-08-31","note":"Date on the proposal’s title page; the summer project took place in 1956."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"A research problem is named, without a seed design or a path to greater intelligence."}}},{"id":"ts-a3-dartmouth-1955-context","subject":"dartmouth-proposal-1955","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"recursive-self-improvement"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"The 1955 Dartmouth proposal names self-improvement as a problem for study.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-08-31","note":"Date on the proposal’s title page; the summer project took place in 1956."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"Self-improvement is proposed for study, but no improvement of the improvement process is described."}}},{"id":"ec-m01-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-as-ordinary-technical-change"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) bears on M01. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor, Georgia Institute of Technology (economist). Buckingham lists three things called automation in 1955: electronic computers processing data, automatic machines on assembly lines, and the hypothetical fully automatic enterprise.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"Describes what electronic computers can do; it does not by itself say whether the economist's analysis treats them as ordinary technical change. That framing is on p. 31 (mechanization principle).","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"Choice is limited to 'previously anticipated' courses of action under built-in criteria."}}},{"id":"ec-m01-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-a","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-as-ordinary-technical-change"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) articulates M01. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor, Georgia Institute of Technology (economist). Under 'mechanization', the first of four principles of automation, Buckingham says mechanization sometimes substitutes machinery for muscle (the steam engine) and sometimes substitutes machinery for routine brainwork (the electronic computer). Both appear as cases of one general principle.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["earliest-located"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"Restricted to brainwork 'at the lower, routine levels'."}}},{"id":"ec-m01-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-as-ordinary-technical-change"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) bears on M01. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse says the hearings, from Ford's vice president to Vannevar Bush, traced automation as mechanization: new devices, with electronics applied to the control of mechanical and chemical processes. Commenting on Buckingham's four principles, Nourse argues that continuous process is old and that the real change came with electronic feedback control.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"(M01-03) Describes the computer's role as substitution of mechanical for mental work; no economic analysis of it as ordinary technical change in this sentence (see M01-05). (M01-04) Nourse distinguishes feedback control technologically; this does not dispute analysing automation as ordinary economic technical change.","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"(M01-03) Summarises the witnesses' account of 'automation as mechanization'. (M01-04) The newness is technological, in feedback control. He continues: 'It has its roots in mechanization, to be sure, but something new was added.'."}}},{"id":"ec-m01-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-a","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-as-ordinary-technical-change"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) articulates M01. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse's first point: automation is 'only one inseparable part of the larger problem of technological progress', alongside jet propulsion, new metallurgy, plastics and atomic fission. He says it 'is only a way of increasing this varied and highly productive technology'.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["articulation"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"The sentence continues: 'of trying to capture the values of higher productivity put within our reach by scientific progress'."}}},{"id":"ec-m02-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"ai-as-task-automation"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) bears on M02. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse locates the 'real change' in electronic devices that remove the need for human judgement in process control.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"Describes machines taking over the mental element of control work, but not within a framework that allocates tasks between capital and labour, and not as AI.","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"'to considerable extent'; limited to control of continuous production processes."}}},{"id":"ec-m05-automation-hearings-1955-other-witnesses-b","subject":"automation-hearings-1955-other-witnesses","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"machines-cheaper-at-every-task"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization of the Joint Committee on the Economic Report, “Automation and Technological Change: Hearings (statements by non-economists)” (1955-10) bears on M05. Speaker: UAW-CIO report (Economic and Collective Bargaining Conference, 12 November 1954), submitted for the record by Walter P. Reuther, president, CIO (non-economist witness). The UAW report collects predictions of rapid automation to argue for an expanding economy built on broad purchasing power.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10","note":"Hearings held October 14–28, 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"relay","missing":"A relayed prediction of a fivefold labour saving, not machines performing all tasks. The economist is unnamed.","tier":{"value":2,"basis":"Witnesses who are not economists (named per passage)."},"conditions":"Attributed to 'another economist'. It is conditional on the preceding claim that, if expenditure on automating industrial facilities kept rising, 'American industry may be fully automated within a decade'. That claim rests on figures from 'a prominent Harvard economist', also unnamed."}}},{"id":"ec-m05-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"machines-cheaper-at-every-task"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) bears on M05. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor, Georgia Institute of Technology (economist). Buckingham says this picture 'has charged the imagination of some and struck terror in the hearts of others', and that it too is called automation. He then complains of a 'flood of verbiage' lacking quantitative evidence.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"relay","missing":"A reported speculation, not Buckingham's own claim; it concerns one enterprise working without labour, not machines performing every task, including new ones, more cheaply than people.","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"Attributed to 'scientists, computer manufacturers, and science fiction writers', who have shown it 'hypothetically at least'. 'chain or products' is as printed in the OCR."}}},{"id":"ec-m05-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-c","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"contests_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"machines-cheaper-at-every-task"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) contests M05. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor, Georgia Institute of Technology (economist). Concludes his assessment of the employment criterion before turning to stability.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["earliest-located","contesting"],"register":"nonfiction","engagement":{"kind":"engages-premise","rationale":"Buckingham gives limited automatable coverage and creation of new jobs as reasons against permanent mass unemployment."},"tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"The next sentence qualifies it: there is 'no automatic regulator in the economic system that guarantees full employment', and the gains need continued expansion. He likens the economy to 'a rocket which must continue to accelerate or else fall from the sky'."}}},{"id":"ec-m05-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-c","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"contests_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"machines-cheaper-at-every-task"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) contests M05. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse contrasts the 'preponderant attitude of business executives' with labour officials' concerns and goes on to side with labour's call for study (p. 621).","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["contesting"],"register":"nonfiction","engagement":{"kind":"contrary-only","rationale":"Nourse endorses the business view of long-run job creation but qualifies it with severe adjustment costs."},"tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"He adds at once that 'we need to study the fine print', given 'severe short-run dislocations, local catastrophes, and painful readjustments'."}}},{"id":"ec-m06a-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-a","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-lowers-labour-income"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) articulates M06a. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor, Georgia Institute of Technology (economist). Buckingham classifies eight direct effects of automation, starting with abolished production jobs and fewer new jobs that need higher skills. Citing a Chicago dissertation by David G. Osborn (12 automation cases, average 63.4 per cent reduction in employee requirements) and industry figures, Buckingham argues that displacement takes the form of reduced hiring and 'hidden unemployment of downgrading'.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["earliest-located"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"(M06a-01) These are listed as direct effects. He goes on to argue that long-run mass unemployment is not to be feared (p. 35). (M06a-02) He says there have been no mass layoffs because automation has been slow enough for normal turnover to disguise displacement."}}},{"id":"ec-m06a-diebold-1955-automation-condensation-a","subject":"diebold-1955-automation-condensation","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-lowers-labour-income"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Diebold, “A Condensation of the Book Automation, in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) articulates M06a. Under “Labor resistance” the condensation says that when automation makes a specific human skill obsolete it works a hardship on the individual worker who is displaced.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Printed with Diebold’s statement on the hearing day of 14 October 1955. A condensation of his book Automation (copyright 1952) by the Controllership Foundation, inserted, he says, \"with a few minor revisions\"; the book’s wording was not compared, so the wording is dated by the hearings, not by the book. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["earliest-located-tier-2"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":2,"basis":"Witness who is not an economist: John Diebold, management consultant (president, John Diebold & Associates), author of the condensed book."}}}},{"id":"ec-m06a-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-a","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"automation-lowers-labour-income"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) articulates M06a. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse asks whether automation will disturb the price-and-income relations behind the postwar prosperity, and lists its effects on wages, capital, costs, prices, profits and taxes.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["articulation"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"Mixed effects: the sentence continues that wage rates will be 'upgraded here and downgraded there'."}}},{"id":"ec-m06b-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"compensating-policy-for-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) bears on M06b. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor, Georgia Institute of Technology (economist). Buckingham argues that automation serves consumer satisfaction, efficiency and progressiveness, but that mass purchasing power must be maintained. He also notes that automation may not create the waves of secondary investment that the automobile did.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"States a distributional condition (sharing through wages and prices) but proposes no redistribution, tax or compensating public policy.","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"Framed as a 'danger spot' for a wealthy economy that 'must continue to be reasonably equalitarian because its prosperity depends on mass purchasing power'."}}},{"id":"ec-m06b-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"compensating-policy-for-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) bears on M06b. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse rejects the view that technological progress 'takes care of its own economic problems'. Responding to members' and staff questions on automation-specific legislation.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"(M06b-02) A general call for generous policies to assimilate technological change, not a specific compensating policy. (M06b-04) Answers whether to legislate on 'the problems created by so-called automation'. He rejects legislation that would 'curb or redirect' discovery and its application, not compensating policy as such.","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"(M06b-02) Argued against the 'comfortable formula' that falling prices automatically restore jobs. That formula presupposes perfect competition and labour mobility, which do not hold in an economy of large corporations, unions and administered prices. (M06b-04) He immediately adds that every money bill, tax revision and regulatory measure gives 'punchcard or tape instructions' to the economy, and that general public policy should be framed accordingly."}}},{"id":"ec-m06b-nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement-a","subject":"nourse-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"compensating-policy-for-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Nourse, “Statement (former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-28) articulates M06b. Speaker: Edwin G. Nourse, former Chairman, Council of Economic Advisers (economist). Nourse suggests that adoption might come closer to the optimum if companies had to provide for workers' costs of change, and lists severance pay and reimbursement for time lost or skills scrapped as devices to explore.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-28","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["earliest-located"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (former Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"In the same sentence he says the individual need not be 'carried around on a pillow' and that government should not be 'the benevolent grandmother'. He calls for study of 'properly distributing the burdens'."}}},{"id":"ec-m06b-diebold-1955-automation-condensation-a","subject":"diebold-1955-automation-condensation","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"compensating-policy-for-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Diebold, “A Condensation of the Book Automation, in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) articulates M06b. The condensation says that responsibility for retraining and restoring the earning power of displaced workers lies with management as well as with the worker, and that accepting a fair share of it will ease the labour problem that automation brings.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Printed with Diebold’s statement on the hearing day of 14 October 1955. A condensation of his book Automation (copyright 1952) by the Controllership Foundation, inserted, he says, \"with a few minor revisions\"; the book’s wording was not compared, so the wording is dated by the hearings, not by the book. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["earliest-located-tier-2"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":2,"basis":"Witness who is not an economist: John Diebold, management consultant (president, John Diebold & Associates), author of the condensed book."},"conditions":"Presented as a growing realization among businessmen; the next sentence says that accepting a fair share of responsibility for a cooperative solution will ease the labour problem."}}},{"id":"ec-m06b-reuther-1955-automation-hearings-statement-a","subject":"reuther-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"articulates_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"compensating-policy-for-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Reuther, “Statement (president, Congress of Industrial Organizations), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-17) articulates M06b. Reuther urges the subcommittee to consider earlier Social Security payments for workers forced into retirement before 65 because technological changes have taken their jobs and their age keeps them from finding other work.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-17","note":"Hearing day of the statement: \"Monday, October 17, 1955\" (printed p. 97), as in the order of appearances. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["articulation"],"register":"nonfiction","tier":{"value":2,"basis":"Witness who is not an economist: Walter P. Reuther, president of the Congress of Industrial Organizations."}}}},{"id":"ec-m09-automation-hearings-1955-other-witnesses-b","subject":"automation-hearings-1955-other-witnesses","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"recent-economics-engagement-with-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization of the Joint Committee on the Economic Report, “Automation and Technological Change: Hearings (statements by non-economists)” (1955-10) bears on M09. Speaker: John Diebold, president, John Diebold & Associates (management consultant; not an economist witness). Diebold lists basic questions automation poses for 'economic theory, the way we measure productivity', and for cost accounting.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10","note":"Hearings held October 14–28, 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"A non-economist's call for economists to rethink theory in light of automation, not a description of the state of economics. It concerns automation in general, not machine intelligence.","tier":{"value":2,"basis":"Witnesses who are not economists (named per passage)."},"conditions":"Follows his question whether it is still meaningful to measure productivity by direct labour as the direct-labour content of manufacturing falls."}}},{"id":"ec-m09-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement-b","subject":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","predicate":"bears_on_proposition","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"recent-economics-engagement-with-ai"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"Buckingham, “Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) bears on M09. Speaker: Walter S. Buckingham Jr., associate professor (industrial management), Georgia Institute of Technology; testifying as an economist. Introducing his written statement, Buckingham says he is neither an engineer nor an athlete and speaks for himself as an economist. The chairman introduces him as associate professor of industrial management who had spoken at the CIO automation conference in April 1955.","time":{"kind":"event","date":"1955-10-14","note":"Hearing day of the statement, as printed; the volume was printed by the GPO in 1955. Checked in a current copy; an archive capture was not available, so earlier bytes are not authenticated."},"derivation":"explicit","resolution":"supported","attributes":{"thought":{"roles":["context"],"register":"nonfiction","missing":"Self-identification only; it establishes that an economist was the subcommittee's opening analytical witness on automation in October 1955, not what economics as a field held.","tier":{"value":1,"basis":"Prepared statement by an economist (\"as an economist\", associate professor at Georgia Tech, shown in the text); a substantive argued statement. Tier 1 by maintainer decision of 2026-10-12 (economist testimony)."},"conditions":"He adds that he speaks 'for myself only'."}}},{"id":"ap-walter-s-buckingham-buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement","subject":"walter-s-buckingham","predicate":"authored","object":{"kind":"entity","entityId":"buckingham-1955-automation-hearings-statement"},"topic":"ideas","statement":"“Statement (testifying as an economist), in Automation and Technological Change: Hearings” (1955-10-14) credits Walter S. 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